It is said that the word Sufi is derived from tasawwuf, or the wearing of wool. This is probably a reference to the ascetic nature of Sufis. Prior to the emergence of Sufism as we know it, Muslims had in their early years known some ascetics, such as Abu Dharr Al Ghafari who was one of Muhammad’s companions; those had probably been influenced by the lifestyle of some Christian monks who had chosen to be cloistered in their monasteries, and perhaps also by that of Hindu ascetics.
However, Sufi asceticism gradually developed into mysticism, especially when the concept of love was introduced, presumably by Rabi’a Al ‘Adawiyya who frequently expressed her unconditional, boundless love for her Creator: On one occasion, she said: “O God! If I worship You for fear of Hell, punish me in Hell; and if I worship You in the hope of Paradise, exclude me from Paradise; but if I worship You for Your own sake, grudge me not Your eternal beauty.” On another occasion, when Rabi’a was asked if she loved God, she said she did. Then she was asked if she hated Satan; she replied that her love of God prevented her from occupying herself with hatred of Satan. Over time, Sufis increasingly advocated the idea of loving God, so much so that union with Him was sought to the point of fana’, or dissolution of the self in the Divine. It was within that context that one of the most prominent Sufis- Al Hallaj- declared “ana al-haqq,” or “I am the Truth,” something that led some Muslims to consider him a kaffir, or infidel, because they believed that he was trying to say that he himself was God, although that was not what he meant; for that statement, he was tortured, but not killed. However, he was later imprisoned, tortured, and executed on the charge that he implicitly wanted to dispose of Ka’ba when he stated that instead of going on a pilgrimage to Mecca, a Muslim could do the required circumambulations around the Ka’ba of his heart.
Ibn ‘Arabi later introduced into Sufism the concept of “wahdat al wujood,” or Unity of Existence (also, Unity of Being), where God was perceived as all inclusive, and where people did not have an existence separate from that of God. This is something that has laid Sufism open to charges of pantheism, although such an accusation is exaggerated, partly because Sufis have always seen God as a conscious, sentient Being, rather than considering God and the universe to be one and the same thing like pantheists do. Ibn ‘Arabi also introduced the concept of “al insan al kamil,” or Perfect Human Being, whose model was Muhammad the prophet of Islam. It seems very likely that Ibn ‘Arabi took the Muhammad of the Meccan years as his model, since the Muhammad of the Medinan period frequently took active part in invading non-Muslim communities, killing their men, plundering their wealth, enslaving their children, and permitting the rape of their women under the pretext of “sabaya” (female captives) and “ma malakat aymanukum” (those whom your right hand possesses, i.e. sexual slaves). Even within the religion of Islam itself, it would be unreasonable to maintain that Muhammad was perfect, since the Quran itself states that God has forgiven his prophet’s past and future sins (Al Fatih 2). The idea of Unity of Existence was also expressed and advocated by somebody who greatly enriched Sufism through his masterful poetry: Jalal Addeen Rumi who is regarded as one of the greatest Muslim poets of all time. Students of Sufism have always been greatly overwhelmed by the eloquence and beauty of Sufi poetry as a whole, especially that of Rumi.
Sufism has not been without its critics, most of whom are radical Muslims, such as Wahhabis, Salafists, Jihadists and their ilk who have been inspired by the likes of the fanatical Ibn Taymiyya. Sufis have been seen by those extremists as mushrikoon (polytheists; idolators), based on the perception that they attribute to their holy men miraculous healing and intercessory powers. Furthermore, their dogmatic critics charge, Sufis believe that their holy men have baraka, or a special blessing, which is transmitted to their descendants and their shrines. Sufi reluctance to interpret the Quran literally and their aversion to the uncompromising application of sharia have also been denounced by their literalist enemies. In addition, Sufi tolerance towards people of other faiths, their openness to modernity, and their relatively good treatment of women have been strongly condemned by the above-mentioned zealots. Even Muslim reformers have had their own criticisms of Sufis, mainly because of what they view as Sufi otherworldliness and their perceived passivity in the face of foreign aggression and/ or local dictatorships.
The charge that Sufis are too passive and otherworldly flies in the face of historical evidence: The Sanussi movement in Libya played an important part in resisting Fascist Italy’s war of aggression against that country in the first half of the twentieth century; the resistance was led politically by emir Idris (who later became the king of Libya) and militarily by Omar Al Mukhtar, both Sufis. In Algeria, resistance to the French occupation of that country was led for some time by Abdul Qadir Al Jaza’iri who was another Sufi. Imam Shamil of Dagestan- yet another Sufi- put up great resistance to Russian imperialism. Ali Muhammad Pasha of Egypt, too, was a Sufi, and he was by no means passive. The above-mentioned Sufi men have been universally praised for their courage in the face of oppression, for their reasonableness, and for their humane treatment of non-Muslim enemies who had fallen into their hands. Furthermore, the ruling dynasty of the Egyptian Muhammad Ali Pasha (up until King Farouk) and the Libyan King Idris were very much open to modernity, and both advanced their countries considerably during their reign; true to their Sufi traditions, the political regimes of those men were also tolerant towards non-Muslims and respected women far more than most Muslim countries have. Sufi influence may also help explain why Bosnian Muslims rank among the most moderate of Muslims; two strands of Sufism- Naqshabandiyya and Qadiriyya- have been central to their understanding of Islam.
While it is true that some Sufis tend to exaggerate the religious importance of their holy men, that excess in itself does not seriously undermine the truly level-headed mentality of the Sufis in general; after all, believers in any ideology can carry things to extremes: Some believers in democracy, for example, may consider it to be a magical solution for the world’s ills, something which cannot easily be substantiated by any credible evidence, while some of those who have strong faith in the “invisible hand” of the capitalist market tend to see laissez-faire capitalism as a highly beneficial system, in spite of the fact that many nations and socioeconomic classes around the world may have a different opinion. As for regarding Sufis as idolators and polytheists, this seems to be yet another example of preposterous exaggeration dreamt up by their detractors: The prima facie allegation made by die-hard Islamists that Sufis are polytheists because they hold that their holy men can intercede on somebody’s behalf with God is hard to sustain if we take into account that in Islam, Muhammad and other prophets and messengers do have intercessory powers with God; if such powers were a manifestation of idolatry, the same should apply to those held by prophets, given the fact that critics of Sufism insist that the relationship between the worshipper and God be strictly direct. The condemnation by Islamic radicals of Sufi shrines and tombstones appears hypocritical, considering the fact that Muslims regularly and repeatedly circumambulate with awe and veneration an inanimate, cube-like building (Ka’ba) during their pilgrimage to Mecca, kiss a “holy” black stone, and drink the “holy” water of zamzam, not to mention visiting the tombstones of Muhammad, his family members, and his companions.
Like any other ideology or philosophy, Sufism is not monolithic and there are different perspectives within the Sufi tradition itself; it has been an eclectic way of dealing with people’s relationship with God, embracing different interpretations, attitudes, and philosophies throughout its numerous centuries of existence. There is no denying, however, that Sufis generally agree on a number of common denominators, such as a strong emphasis on the establishment of a personal, loving relationship with God; giving priority to spirituality over the laws of sharia; the metaphoric reinterpretation of the Quran; tolerance of and peaceful co-existence with non-Muslims; treating women with more respect; and being open to the modern ideas of progress and development. Therein lies the essence of a particular view of Islam which seems conducive to the rebuilding of a religion that has been brought down to its knees by the savagery, fanaticism, ruthlessness, criminality, and oppression of the Wahhabis, the Salafists, the Jihadists, the Muslim Brotherhood, Al Qaeda, and the Islamic State group. It might be worthwhile for Muslims and non-Muslims alike to join hands in encouraging, promoting, and sustaining Sufism as a reasonable and constructive way out of Islam’s current morass.
About the author
Husam Dughman comes from a family that is historically descended from Europeans on his father’s side and Middle Easterners on his mother’s side. He was born in Libya and educated in Libya and the United Kingdom. Before Qaddafi came to power, Husam Dughman’s father had been the president of the University of Libya and his maternal grandfather had been a prime minister. Immediately following Qaddafi’s military coup d’état in 1969, both stood up to the Qaddafi regime and were consequently imprisoned: Husam Dughman’s father was incarcerated for a period of 10 years, during which he was subjected to regular torture by the Qaddafi regime, and his grandfather was incarcerated for five years.
In the 1990s, Husam Dughman returned to Libya and worked as a university professor of political science. Due to conflicts with the Qaddafi regime, he resigned from his university position in 1997 and subsequently worked in legal translation. Years later, Husam Dughman left Libya for North America, where he has been working as a newcomer specialist, helping new immigrants and refugees with their settlement.
Husam Dughman has published a book, Tête-à-tête with Muhammad, and he has also published various articles about the Middle East. He is currently working on a new book on the Abrahamic religions and scepticism. You can find out more by visiting his website at http://www.husamdughman.com